Great Northern War
| Great Northern War | |||||||||
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| Part of Russo–Swedish Wars, Polish–Swedish wars and Dano-Swedish Wars | |||||||||
 Great Northern War. Clockwise from top: Battle of Poltava, Battle of Gangut, Battle of Narva, Battle of Gadebusch, Battle of Storkyro |
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Swedish Empire Holstein-Gottorp Poland–Lithuania (1704–09).svg.png){kind=small} Ottoman Empire (1710–14) Cossack Hetmanate (1708–1709) |
 Tsardom of Russia Denmark–Norway(1700, 1709–)  Electorate of Saxony(1700–06, 1709–) Poland–Lithuania(1700–04, 1709–) Cossack Hetmanate (1700–1708).gif){kind=small} Prussia (1715–).svg.png){kind=small} Hanover (1715–).svg.png){kind=small} Great Britain (1717–) |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Charles XII † Rehnskiöld Stenbock Lewenhaupt Frederick IV † Stanisław Leszczyński Ahmed III Ivan Mazepa |
Peter the Great Aleksandr Menshikov Sheremetev Frederick IV
Frederick William I
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| Strength | |||||||||
| 77,000–393,400 77,000–135,000 Total Swedish troops across the whole country including garrisons and militia (1700 and 1707, respectively) 100,000–200,000 Ottomans (only participated in one battle, remained passive during the rest of the war) 8,000–40,000 Cossacks 16,000 Polish troops (1708) |
At least 360,000 170,000 Russians (facing the Swedes, garrisons not included) +40,000 Danes/Norwegians +100,000 Poles and Saxons (at the most) around 50,000 (42 regiments) Prussians unknown amount from Hannover[1][2] |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| About 25,000 Swedes killed in combat, estimated total of 175,000 killed by famine, disease and exhaustion etc.[3] | Unknown. At least 75,000 Russians, 14,000–20,000 Poles and Saxons, 8,000 Danes killed in the larger battles, 60,000 Danes in total between 1709–1719.[4] |
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| History of Scandinavia |
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During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), a coalition of numerous states successfully contested Swedish supremacy in northern Central and Eastern Europe. Initially, the anti-Swedish alliance was composed of Peter the Great of Russia, Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway and August the Strong of Saxe-Poland-Lithuania. Frederik IV and August the Strong were forced out of the alliance in 1700 and 1706, respectively, but re-joined it in 1709. George I of Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) joined the coalition in 1714 for Hanover, and 1717 for Britain, and Frederick William I of Brandenburg-Prussia in 1715. On the Swedish side were Holstein-Gottorp, between 1704 and 1710 several Polish and Lithuanian magnates under Stanisław Leszczyński and between 1708 and 1710 cossacks under Ivan Mazepa. The Ottoman Empire temporarily hosted Charles XII of Sweden and intervened against Peter the Great.
The war started with a three-fold attack on Holstein-Gottorp, Swedish Livonia and Swedish Ingria by Denmark-Norway, Saxe-Poland-Lithuania and Russia, respectively. Sweden parried the Danish and Russian attacks at Travendal and Narva, and in a counter-offensive pushed August the Strong's forces through Lithuania and Poland to Saxony, dethroning August on the way and forcing him to acknowledge defeat in Altranstädt. Peter the Great had meanwhile recovered and gained ground in Sweden's Baltic provinces, where he cemented Russia's access to the Baltic Sea by founding Saint Petersburg. Charles XII moved from Saxony into Russia to confront Peter, but the campaign ended with the destruction of the main Swedish army in Poltava and Charles XII's exile in Ottoman Bender. Russian pursuit was halted at the Pruth by the Ottoman army.
After Poltava, the initial anti-Swedish coalition was re-established and subsequently joined by Hanover and Prussia. The remaining Swedish forces south and east of the Baltic Sea were evicted from the Swedish dominions, which the allies partitioned among themselves. Sweden proper was invaded by Denmark-Norway from the West and by Russia from the East. Though the Danish attacks were repulsed, Russia managed to occupy Finland and inflict severe losses on the Swedish navy and coastal fortresses. Charles XII opened up a Norwegian front, but was killed in Fredriksten in 1718.
The war ended with a defeat for Sweden, leaving Russia as the new major power in the Baltic Sea and a new important player in European politics. The formal conclusion of the war was marked by the Swedish-Hanoveranian and Swedish-Prussian Treaties of Stockholm (1719), the Dano-Swedish Treaty of Frederiksborg (1720), and the Russo-Swedish Treaty of Nystad (1721). Therein, Sweden ceded her exemption from the sound dues, all her dominions except for the northern part of Swedish Pomerania, and broke ties with Holstein-Gottorp. Hanover gained Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated the Oder estituary, Russia secured the Baltic provinces, and Denmark her position in Schleswig-Holstein. In Sweden, the absolute monarchy had come to an end with Charles XII's death, and the Age of Liberty began.
Background
Between 1560 and 1658, Sweden created a Baltic empire centred on the Gulf of Finland and comprising the provinces of Karelia, Ingria, Estonia, and Livonia. During the Thirty Years' War Sweden gained tracts in Germany as well, including Western Pomerania, Wismar, the Duchy of Bremen, and Verden. During the same period Sweden conquered Danish and Norwegian provinces north of the Sound (1645; 1658). These victories may be ascribed to a well-trained army, which despite its comparatively small size was far more professional than most continental armies. In particular, it was able to maintain a high rate of small arms fire due to proficient military drill.
However, the Swedish state proved unable to support and maintain its army in a prolonged war. Campaigns on the continent had been proposed on the basis that the army would be financially self-supporting though plunder and taxation of newly gained land. However, the cost of the warfare proved to be much higher than the occupied countries could hope to fund, and Sweden's coffers were drained.
The foreign interventions in Russia during the Time of Troubles resulted in Swedish gains in the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617). The treaty deprived Russia of direct access to the Baltic Sea, meaning that the Russians were not in a position to challenge the Swedish regional hegemony. Russian fortunes reversed during the later half of the 17th century, notably with the rise to power of Peter the Great, who looked to address the earlier losses and re-establish a Baltic presence. In the late 1690s, the adventurer Johann Patkul managed to ally Russia with Denmark and Saxony by the Treaty of Preobrazhenskoye and in 1700 the three powers attacked.
Opposing parties
Swedish camp
Charles XII of Sweden[nb 1] succeeded Charles XI of Sweden in 1697, aged 14. From his predecessor, he took over the Swedish Empire as an absolute monarch. Charles XI had tried to keep the empire out of wars, and concentrated on inner reforms such as reduktion and indelningsverk, which had strengthened the monarch's status and the empire's military abilities. Charles XII saw himself in the tradition of medieval knights, and was known for his strong sense of justice and his dislike of the baroque way of life, including all kinds of luxury and alcohol and usage of the French language. Instead, he preferred the life of an ordinary soldier on horseback, outside the contemporary baroque courts. He inadvertedly pursued his goal of dethroning his adversaries, whom he considered unworthy of their thrones due to broken promises, thereby refusing to take several chances to make peace. This attitude was regarded great by some, crazy by others, and it remains unclear what direction the bullet came from that killed him in 1718. During the war, the most important Swedish commanders besides Charles XII were his close friend Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld, also Magnus Stenbock and Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt.
Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp and a cousin of Charles XII,[nb 1] was married to Hedvig Sophia, daughter of Charles XI of Sweden, in 1698. His son and successor since 1702, Charles Frederick claimed the Swedish throne upon Charles XII's death, but had to yield the claims of Ulrike Eleonora. He was married to a daughter of Peter the Great, Anna Petrovna.
Ivan Mazepa was a cossak hetman who fought on Peter the Great's side, but defected to Charles XII in 1708. He died in 1710 in Ottoman exile.
Allied camp
Peter the Great succeeded Ivan V of Russia in 1696, and after his grand tour to Western Europe continued the reforms started by his predecessors, converting the Russian tsardom into a modernized empire of tripled size, provided with access to the Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. His cognomen resembles these achievements. The most important Russian commanders besides Peter were Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov and Boris Sheremetev.
August the Strong, elector of Saxony and another cousin of Charles XII,[nb 1] gained the Polish crown after the death of Jan Sobieski in 1696. He lived his life in baroque fashion, and turned his capital Dresden into a world-famous baroque residence, and well over a hundred children are ascribed to him. His ambitions to transform the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth into an absolute monarchy however failed. His meeting with Peter the Great in Prawa in September 1698, where the plans were made to attack Sweden, became legendary for its decadence. His cognomen resulted from his physical strength.
Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway, another cousin of Charles XII,[nb 1] succeeded Christian V in 1699 and continued his anti-Swedish policies. After the setbacks of 1700, he focussed on transforming his state, an absolute monarchy, in a similar way as Charles XI of Sweden had done. He did not achieve his main goal, to regain the former eastern Danish provinces lost to Sweden in the course of the 17th century, and was not able to secure northern Swedish Pomerania, Danish from 1715 to 1720. Yet, he put an end to the Swedish threat south of Denmark and to Sweden's exemption of the sound dues.
Frederick William I entered the war as elector of Brandenburg and king in Prussia - the royal title had been secured in 1701. He was determined to gain the Oder estituary as a direct access to the Baltic Sea for the Brandenburgian core areas, a Brandenburgian goal ever since. George I of the House of Hanover, elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg and since 1714 king of Great Britain and Ireland, took the opportunity to connect his land-locked German electorate to the North Sea.
Army size
In 1700, Charles XII had a standing army based on annual training and consisting of 77,000 men, but by 1707 this number had swollen to at least 120,000 despite casualties.
Russia was able to mobilize a larger army, but could not put all of them into action simultaneously. Furthermore, the Russian mobilization system was ineffective, and the expanding nation had to be defended everywhere — garrisons had to be supported and the war paid for. A grand mobilization covering Russia's vast territories would have been unrealistic. Peter the Great tried to enhance his army's morale to Swedish levels.
Denmark contributed 20,000 men in their invasion of Holstein-Gottorp and several more on other fronts. Poland and Saxony together could mobilize at least 100,000 men.
1700: Denmark, Riga and Narva
Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway directed his first attack against the Swedish ally Holstein-Gottorp south of his realm. Already in 1697, Danish forces had levelled several of Gottorp's fortresses, and in March 1700, a Danish army again moved in and laid siege to Tönning.[5] Simultanuously, August the Strong's forces advanced through Swedish Livonia, captured Dünamünde and laid siege to Riga. First attempts to storm Riga were made already in December 1699.[6]
Charles XII of Sweden first focussed on the Danish attack. The Swedish navy was able to outmaneuvre the Danish sound blockade, and deploy an army near the Danish capital, Copenhagen. This surprise move and pressure by the Maritime Powers forced Denmark-Norway to withdraw from the war in August 1700 by the Peace of Travendal.[7]
Charles XII was now able to speedily deploy his army to the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea and face his remaining enemies: besides the army of Augustus the Strong in Livonia, an army of Russian tsar Peter the Great was already on its way to invade Swedish Ingria,[7] where they laid siege to Narva in October. In November, the Russian and Swedish armies met, and Russia suffered a crushing defeat in the First Battle of Narva.[8]
After the dissipation of the first coalition through the peace of Travendal and the victory at Narva, the Swedish chancellor, Benedict Oxenstjerna, regarded the universal bidding for the favor of Sweden by France and the maritime powers, then on the eve of the War of the Spanish Succession, as a golden opportunity to end the war and make Charles the arbiter of Europe.
1701–1706: Saxe-Poland-Lithuania
Charles XII then turned south to meet his last undefeated opponent August the Strong, elector of Saxony, king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania. Charles crossed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and decisively defeated the Saxe-Polish forces in the Battle of Kliszów in 1702, enabling him to dethrone August the Strong and replace him with his favourite candidate, Stanisław Leszczyński, in 1704. August the Strong resisted, but was again decisively defeated in the Battle of Fraustadt in 1706, forcing him into the Treaty of Altranstadt in the same year.[9]
1702–1710: Russia and the Baltic provinces
The Battle of Narva was a major setback for Peter the Great, but the shift of Charles XII's army to the Saxe-Poland-Lithuania had provided him with an opportunity to recover and gain grounds in the Baltic provinces. Russian victories at Erastfer and Nöteborg (Shlisselburg) provided access to Ingria in 1703, where Peter built there his new capital, Saint Petersburg.[8] He began to build a navy and a modern-style army, based primarily on infantry drilled in the use of firearms.
In 1707, Peter I offered to retrocede everything except Saint Petersburg and the line of the Neva, but Charles XII refused. Instead he moved from Saxony to invade Russia. Though his goal was Moscow, the abilities of his force were sapped by the cold weather and Peter's use of scorched earth tactics. When the main army turned south to recover in Ukraine, the second army with supplies and reinforcements was intercepted and routed in Lesnaya - so were the supplies and reinforcements of Swedish ally Ivan Mazepa in Baturyn. Charles was crushingly defeated by a larger Russian force under Peter I in the Battle of Poltava and fled to the Ottoman Empire while the remains of his army surrendered at Perevolochna.[10]
This shattering defeat did not end the war, although it decided it. Denmark and Saxony joined the war again and Augustus the Strong, through the crafty politics of Boris Kurakin, regained the Polish throne. Peter continued his campaigns in the Baltics, and eventually he built up a powerful navy. In 1710 the Russian forces captured Riga and Tallinn. The Baltic provinces were integrated in the Russian Empire by the Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia.
Formation of a new anti-Swedish alliance
After Poltava, Peter the Great and Augustus the Strong allied again in the Treaty of Thorn (1709), Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway with Augustus the Strong in the Treaty of Dresden (1709), and Russia with Denmark-Norway in the subsequent Treaty of Copenhagen. In the Treaty of Hanover (1710), Brunswick-Lüneburg (Hanover) allied with Russia, whose elector was to become George I of Great Britain. In 1713, Brandenburg-Prussia allied with Russia in the Treaty of Schwedt. Meanwhile king of Great Britain, George I of Hanover concluded three alliances in 1715: the Treaty of Berlin with Denmark-Norway, the Treaty of Stettin with Brandenburg-Prussia, and the Treaty of Greifswald with Russia.
1709–1714: Ottoman Empire
When his army surrendered, Charles XII of Sweden and a few soldiers escaped to Ottoman territory, founding a colony in front of Bender, Moldova. Peter the Great demanded Charles XII's eviction, and when the sultan denied, was decided to force it by invading the Ottoman Empire. His army was, however, trapped by a superior Ottoman army at the Pruth river. Peter the Great managed to negotiate a retreat, making a few territorial concessions and promising to withdraw his forces from the Holy Roman Empire as well as allowing Charles XII's return to Sweden. These terms were laid out in the Treaty of Adrianople (1713). Charles XII however showed no interest in returning, established a provisional court in his colony and sought to persuade the sultan to engage in an Ottoman-Swedish assault on Russia. The sultan denied, put an end to the generous hospitality granted so far and had the king arrested in what became known as the "kalabalik" in 1713. Charles XII was then confined at Timurtash and Demotika, before he abandoned his hopes for an Ottoman front and returned to Sweden in a 14-day ride.[11]
1710–1716: Northern Germany
In 1710, the Swedish army in Poland retreated to Swedish Pomerania, pursued by the coalition. In 1711, siege was laid to Stralsund. Yet the town could not be taken due to the arrival of a Swedish relief army, which secured the Pomeranian pocket before turning west to defeat an allied army in the Battle of Gadebusch. Pursued by coalition forces, the Swedish army was trapped and surrendered in the Siege of Tönning.[12]
In 1714, Charles returned from the Ottoman Empire, arriving in Stralsund in November. In nearby Greifswald, already lost to Sweden, Russian tsar Peter the Great and British king George I, in his position as Elector of Hanover, had just signed an alliance on 17 (OS)/28 (NS) October.[13] Involved in the Pomeranian campaigns as a formally neutral party, Brandenburg-Prussia openly joined the coalition by declaring war at Sweden in the summer of 1715.[14] Charles was then at war with all of Northern Europe, and Stralsund was doomed. Charles remained there until December 1715, escaping only days before Stralsund fell. When Wismar surrendered in 1716, all of Sweden’s Baltic and German possessions were lost.[15]
1716–1718: Norway
After Charles XII had returned from the Ottoman Empire and resumed personal control of the war effort, he initiated two Norwegian Campaigns, starting in February 1716, to force Denmark-Norway into a separate peace treaty. Furthermore, he attempted to bar Great Britain, whose king George I was already at war with Sweden in his office as duke of Hanover, from access to the Baltic Sea. In search for allies, Charles XII also negotiated with the British Jacobite party. This resulted in Great Britain declaring war on Sweden in 1717. The Norwegian campaigns were halted and the army withdrawn when Charles XII was shot dead while besieging Norwegian Fredriksten on 30 November 1718 (OS). He was succeeded by his sister, Ulrika Eleonora.[16]
1713–1721: Finland
In 1714, Peter's galley navy managed to capture a small detachment of the Swedish navy in the first Russian naval victory near Hanko peninsula. The Russian army occupied Finland mostly in 1713-1714, Viborg had been captured already in 1710. The last stand of the Finnish troops was in the battle of Napue in early 1714 in Isokyrö, Ostrobothnia. The occupation period of Finland in 1714-1721 is known as the Greater Wrath (Finnish: isoviha).
1719-1721: Sweden
After the death of Charles XII, Sweden still refused to make peace with Russia on Peter's terms. In 1719 the Russian galley fleet raided the Swedish east coast. Several cities were attacked and almost all buildings in the archipelago of Stockholm were burned. A smaller Russian force advanced on the Swedish capital, but was stopped at the battle of Stäket on August 13. The Russians returned again in 1720 and 1721, although the presence of a British navy limited the extent of the raids.
Peace
By the time of Charles XII's death, the anti-Swedish allies became increasingly divided on how to fill the power gap left behind by the defeated and retreating Swedish armies. George I and Frederik IV both coveted hegemony in northern Germany, while August the Strong was concerned about Frederick William I's ambitions at the southeastern Baltic coast. Peter the Great, whose forces were spread all around the Baltic Sea, envisioned hegemony in East Central Europe and sought to establish naval bases as far west as Mecklenburg. In January 1719, George I, August the Strong and emperor Francis I concluded a treaty in Vienna aimed at reduction of Russia's frontiers to the pre-war state.[16]
Hanover-Great Britain and Brandenburg-Prussia thereupon negotiated separate peace treaties with Sweden, the treaties of Stockholm in 1719 and early 1720, which partitioned Sweden's northern German dominions among the parties. The negotiations were mediated by French diplomats, who sought to prevent a complete collapse of Sweden's position at the southern Baltic coast and achieved that Sweden was to retain Wismar and northern Swedish Pomerania. Hanover gained Swedish Bremen-Verden, Brandenburg-Prussia incorporated southern Swedish Pomerania.[18]
In addition to the rivalries in the anti-Swedish coalition, there was an inner-Swedish rivalry between Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and Frederick I of Hesse-Cassel for the Swedish throne. The Gottorp party succumbed and Ulrike Eleonora transferred power to her husband, Frederick I, in May 1720. When peace was concluded with Denmark, the anti-Swedish coalition had already fallen apart, and Denmark was not in a military position to negotiate a return of her former eastern provinces across the sound. Frederick I was however willing to cede the Swedish support for his rival in Holstein-Gottorp, which came under Danish control and the northern part annexed, and furthermore cede the Swedish privilege of exemption from the sound dues. A respective treaty was concluded in Frederiksborg in June 1720.[18]
When Sweden finally was at peace with Hanover, Great Britain, Brandenburg-Prussia and Denmark-Norway, she hoped that the anti-Russian sentiments of the Vienna parties and France would culminate in an alliance which would restore to her her Russian-occupied eastern provinces. Yet, primarily due to internal conflicts in Great Britain and France, that did not happen. Therefore, the war was finally concluded by the Treaty of Nystad between Russia and Sweden in Uusikaupunki (Nystad) on 30 August 1721 (OS). Finland was returned to Sweden, while Swedish Estonia, Livonia, Ingria, Kexholm and the bulk of Karelia were ceded to Russia. Sweden's dissatisfaction with the result led to fruitless attempts at recovering the lost territories in the course of the following century, such as Hats' Russian War, and Gustav III's Russian War.[18]
Saxe-Poland-Lithuania and Sweden did not conclude a formal peace treaty, instead, they renewed the Peace of Oliva that had ended the Second Northern War in 1660.[19]
Sweden had lost almost all of its "overseas" holdings gained in the 17th century, and ceased to be a major power. Russia gained its Baltic territories, and became the greatest power in Eastern Europe.
Notes
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Charles XII of Sweden, Frederick IV of Holstein-Gottorp, August the Strong and Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway were all grandsons of Frederik III of Denmark-Norway
Sources
References
- ↑ http://www.wfgamers.org.uk/resources/C18/prusorg.htm
- ↑ "Den preussiska arméns fälttåg 1702-1715". Tacitus.nu. http://www.tacitus.nu/karoliner/armeer/preussen.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-24.
- ↑ Ericson, Lars, Svenska knektar (2004) Lund: Historiska media
- ↑ Lindegren, Jan, Det danska och svenska resurssystemet i komparation (1995) Umeå : Björkås : Mitthögsk
- ↑ Frost (2000), pp. 227-228
- ↑ Frost (2000), pp. 228-229
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Frost (2000), p. 229
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 Frost (2000), p. 230
- ↑ Frost (2000), pp. 230, 263ff
- ↑ Frost (200), pp.231, 286ff
- ↑ Petersen (2007), pp.268-272, 275; Bengtsson (1960), pp. 393ff, 409ff, 420-445
- ↑ Wilson (1998), p.140
- ↑ Torke (2005), p.165
- ↑ Meier (2008), p.23
- ↑ North (2008), p.53
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Frost (2000), pp. 295-296
- ↑ The Russian Victory at Gangut (Hanko), 1714 by Maurice Baquoi, etched 1724
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Frost (2000), p. 296
- ↑ Donnert (1997), p. 510
Bibliography
- Bengtsson, Frans Gunnar (1960). The sword does not jest. The heroic life of King Charles XII of Sweden. St. Martin's Press.
- Donnert, Erich; Europa in der Frühen Neuzeit: Festschrift für Günter Mühlpfordt (1997) (in German). Aufbruch zur Moderne. 3. Böhlau. ISBN 3412006971.
- Frost, Robert I (2000). The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558-1721. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-06429-4.
- Meier, Martin (2008) (in German). Vorpommern nördlich der Peene unter dänischer Verwaltung 1715 bis 1721. Aufbau einer Verwaltung und Herrschaftssicherung in einem eroberten Gebiet. Beiträge zur Militär- und Kriegsgeschichte. 65. Munich: Oldenbourg Wissenschaftsverlag. ISBN 3486582852.
- North, Michael (2008) (in German). Geschichte Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns. Beck Wissen. 2608. CH Beck. ISBN 3406577679.
- Peterson, Gary Dean (2007). Warrior kings of Sweden. The rise of an empire in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. McFarland. ISBN 0786428732.
- Torke, Hans-Joachim (2005) (in German). Die russischen Zaren 1547-1917 (3 ed.). C.H.Beck. ISBN 3406421059.
- Wilson, Peter Hamish (1998). German armies. War and German politics, 1648-1806. Warfare and history. Routledge. ISBN 1857281063.
- For general reference
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.- Sweden and the Baltic, 1523 – 1721, by Andrina Stiles, Hodder & Stoughton, 1992 ISBN 0-340-54644-1
- The Struggle for Supremacy in the Baltic: 1600-1725 by Jill Lisk; Funk & Wagnalls, New York, 1967
- Norges festninger by Guthorm Kavli; Universitetsforlaget; 1987; ISBN 82-00-18430-7
- Admiral Thunderbolt by Hans Christian Adamson, Chilton Company, 1958
- East Norway and its Frontier by Frank Noel Stagg, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. 1956
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